Haymaking in the medieval period (c. 500–1500 A.D.)

Hay plays an important role in modern agriculture; it is used as fodder for horses, cattle and other ruminants and in times when it is not possible to eat fresh grass from pastures. This usage is no invention of our modern times, in the medieval period (c. 500–1500 AD.) hay was already an important resource to maintain livestock over the winter months. It was possibly even more important than it is today. Depending on different circumstances, such as soil fertility, crop cultivation, or others, fodder was not readily available and expensive to acquire. The question arises: How exactly hay was produced and used during the medieval period?

Figure 1: Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, Chantilly, Bibliothèque et archives du château - 65 (1284), Ms.65, fol.6^v.

Hay Production

The meadows

Hay production was dependent on dedicated meadows where the grass, later to become hay, could be grown undisturbed from cattle. These medieval meadows can be roughly divided in two different classes:

1.       The low yield meadow

2.       The high yield meadow

The low yield meadow typically consisted of poor quality soil, therefore it wasn´t able to sustain a nutrient-rich, high yield grass production over long periods. The high yield meadow on the contrary consisted of good soil and was far more desirable as an asset. In fact, these meadows often exceeded fields in price. The challenge in maintaining theses meadows as yield-rich as possible was the adequate irrigation and fertilization of them. Typically, if possible, these high yield meadows were located close to waterways where they were regularly flooded by rising water levels of the rivers, preempting the need to water them manually. If this was not possible, small canals and/or drainage systems had to be built in order to maximize the practical gains. The irrigation with clear freshwater prevented siltation and introduced new nutrients into the ground. Ash was used to reduce the growth of moss and enrich the ground with potassium. Dung-usage on meadows was only practiced if it was much needed or abundantly available. Normally the droppings were used on the fields.

The efforts needed to maintain high yield meadows meant that many farmers couldn´t afford them and were therefore “stuck” using low yield meadows. To maintain some level of nutritional value, in southern germany the method was devised to leave the meadow fallow every three years, stopping hay production for a year but enabling the ground to regain nutrients for the following years. Since hay could be stored for one to two years, and the meadows to be kept as fallow could be alternated, this period of less hay production could be somewhat offset by preserving enough hay from the preceding year(s).

At least by the late medieval period the meadows meant for hay production were kept separate from the fields of a village or farmstead. They were most often not part of the common land,  but held in “private” ownership. And by the early modern period (1500+ A.D.) meadows were often no longer singularly used as meadows but as pasture-meadows, with grazing early in the year and mowing once the grass recovered.

The produced hay was not always used as self-supply. Especially in the later medieval times hay stood as a common commercial good. Farmers could sell their acquired hay at markets, which regularly took place in/around the cities. This posed a great opportunity for farmers to stock up on hay or sell it to local inhabitants. The townspeople, especially in bigger cities, often held small animals without having the pastures needed to feed them. Therefore buying hay was sometimes a necessity for them.

Figure 2: Flemish calendar, Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliohek, Clm 23638, fol.8^v.

The practical work of hay making

The hay was collected during summer, before the wheat fields were harvested. Typically, men were responsible for mowing the grass while women were responsible for raking it. Italian botanist Petrus de Crescentiis ( †1320/21) offers an in-depth guide on how hay should be collected in his work Ruralia Commoda “Successful agriculture”, written in the 13^th and early 14^th century.

III. How hay is harvested and stored, and what benefits it brings

1) The meadows should be mowed when the blades of grass have reached their expected growth and formed flowers, but before the flowers and leaves fall off and become dry. If mowed too early, the hay becomes watery and does not provide the heavy-working horses and oxen with nourishing food. If, on the other hand, the grass is overripe, without natural warmth and moisture, the hay becomes tasteless and repulsive and provides the cattle with only moderate nourishment.

2) Mow the meadows in fine weather, when warm air and dry conditions are expected to continue. Leave the hay on the meadows for one or two days before turning it. Then turn it and dry it accordingly, finally gather it, transport it, and store it in covered buildings. If there are no such buildings, store the hay in the open air, but arrange it so that no water can penetrate it. If it rains immediately after cutting, before the hay has been turned, it suffers little or no damage. However, as Palladius says, it must be turned after the rain before the top layer dries out, regardless of whether it has already been turned or not. But if the rain falls after turning, (the hay) is completely spoiled and no longer has any use.

Even though the work of Petrus was written in the end time of the high middle age, the process of haymaking would most likely not have been that different in earlier periods. The most significant difference might be the technologically improved scythe of the late medieval period. Hay production possibly became more widespread throughout the Middle Ages with easier collection through the use of better scythes; beforehand leaf-hay was often used in poorer circumstances.

Figure 3: Demonstration of mowing using a replica of a medieval mowing scythe at the Lauresham Laboratory for Experimental Archaeology (Lorsch, Germany 2025).

Scythes

The common tool used for hay mowing is a scythe. The most important development of the early medieval period was the move away from the far older chopping scythe, which needed an angled motion to operate it and possibly even a switch between left and right swings, towards the mowing scythe that can at least be dated to the merowingian period. It should be mentioned here that during the early medieval period the scythe was only used for mowing not for the harvest of crops such as wheat or oats.

Most of the times smaller sickles were used for crop harvesting. Sickles could be used with greater carefulness ensuring that grains didn’t become loose or even drop out of the ears while being harvested. In contemporary art, sickles are shown in depictions of harvests. During the early centuries of the first millennium A.D, the common shape of the sickle changed. It gradually became more round, turning from a relatively straight blade to an oval. This helped with collecting the ears harvested, since they neatly stacked inside the oval without much risk of sliding away.

Throughout the high middle ages the scythe was improved to allow lower cuts, by the addition of an improved chine, additionally the tang was angled, therefore also angling the snath in relation to the blade, making parallel cuts from a standing position possible. These lower cuts increased the yield of a meadow since certain weeds could no longer recover in time if the meadow was mowed twice a year.

In the late medieval period scythes were also used for the harvesting of crops.

Hay Usage

Fodder

The primary usage of hay was as fodder for livestock. Livestock was generally kept outside on pastures throughout the years, but during winter, when no grass grew on the pastures, additional food was often necessary, especially for work animals like plow oxen or horses. With the development of the mow-scythe during the merowingian period, hay production got easier and helped spread its usage.

Apart from hay, oats were a typical fodder especially for work horses or work oxen, since they needed to be well fed to be able to do the necessary works such as ploughing (primarily in the late middle ages) or the usage as draft animals for carts. Sometimes oats were fed in addition to hay as a supplement or as singular food, heavily depending on the availability.

Petrus de Crescentiis also offers a short paragraph on the usage of hay:

3) The great advantage of hay is that it can be stored all year round. It can easily be stored for two years and provides oxen, horses, donkeys, mules, and some other animals with the food they need to endure the efforts imposed on them for the sake of human needs. It should be available to sheep and goats when there is snow on the ground and they cannot forage for food outdoors. If the hay is fine, leafy, fragrant, and of high quality, it becomes the almost exclusive food for livestock, giving them sufficient strength for hard work in both the warm and cold seasons. However, if the hay is made of coarse reed grass or is cut too early or too late, it does not provide enough strength for the animals, which are under heavy strain, unless they are occasionally supplemented with oats. (Even low-quality hay is sufficient) in times of extreme cold, when the animals are not working and are particularly greedy for any kind of feed.

Figure 4: Feeding the sheep and goat with hay at the Experimental Archeology Laboratory Lauresham (Lorsch, Germany 2025).

Taxes & Obligations

Hay was used as a tax and also in the context of obligations, even though not in the same extent as wheat or livestock. Examples of hay as a tax or obligation can be found in contemporary sources such as the polyptychon of Prüm or the polyptychon of Saint-Germain-des-Prés. A polytychon or urbarium is a list of goods, rights and associated holdings of an owner. Bertrada, grandmother of Charlemagne, founded the Prüm monastery in 721 A.D. The monastery accumulated many dependent manors and farmsteads. Keeping records of the required levies and tithes therefore became a necessity in order to keep track of income and expenses.

For example regarding Aluesheym (today Albesheim), a possession of the Monastery of Prüm, the polyptychon states:

Sunt in Aluesheym mansa ledilia [...] secat de feno carrad(as) .V. Altrippe aut solvere denarios .V. (fol.48^v 16–20)

The mansa ledilia of Aluesheym are required to mow five carts of hay in Altrippe or pay five denarii.

ad messem et fenum mancipia .II.; fenum ducit et ducit de annona carrad(as) .V. ad scuram dominicam (fol.49^r 2–4)

They also have to provide two serfs for the hay making and have to transport five carts of hay to the barn of their superior.

Sunt preterea mansa servilia […] debet ad Altrippe carrad(as) tres feni secare et ducere ad scuram dominicam aut solver denarius .VI. (fol.49^r 11–14)

The mansi servilia of Aluesheym have to cede and transport three carts of hay to the barn of their superior or pay six denarii.

Conclusion

In this paper hay production and -usage in the medieval period are presented. The most common usage of hay was as fodder, even in the context of taxes. Medieval hay production shows noticeable differences to modern hay production while also expressing some similarities. Hay was grown on dedicated meadows and represented an important resource. Hay production was also influenced by technological developments. Scythes from the start of the medieval period were vastly different from those from the late medieval period, which closely resemble our modern scythes. In the end it can be said that hay was and is an important resource and the scientific engagement with hay production is a worthy endeavor.

Literature & Sources

Literature

H. Weingarten, Herrschaft und Landnutzung. Zur mittelalterlichen Wirtschaftsgeschichte Kloster Zwiefaltens in: W. Hartmann/u.a. Schriften zur Südwestdeutschen Landeskunde 57 (Ostfildern 2006).

L. Kuchenbuch, Bäuerliche Gesellschaft und Klosterherrschaft im 9. Jahrhundert. Studien zur Sozialstruktur der Familia der Abtei Prüm. In: O. Brunner/u.a. Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 66 (Wiesbaden 1978).

M. Collins/V. Davis, Mittelalterliches Leben auf dem Lande. Frühling, Sommer, Herbst und Winter (Wien 2003).

U. Bentzien, Bauernarbeit im Feudalismus. Landwirtschaftliche Arbeitsgeräte und –verfahren in Deutschland von der Mitte des ersten Jahrtausends u. Z. bis um 1800 in: Veröffentlichungen zur Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte 67 (Vaduz 1990).

W. Rösener, Bauern im Mittelalter (München 1985).

W. Rösener, Agrarwirtschaft, Agrarverfassung und ländliche Gesellschaft im Mittelalter in: L. Gall Enzyklopädie Deutscher Geschichte 13 (München 1992).

W. Troßbach/u.a, Grundzüge der Agrargeschichte 1 (Köln/u.a 2016).

Sources

B. Vollmann, Petrus de Crescentiis: Erfolgreiche Landwirtschaft. Ein mittelalterliches Lehrbuch 2 in: W. Berschin, Bibliothek der Mittellateinischen Literatur 4 (Stuttgart 2008).

I. Schwab, das Prümer Urbar. Rheinische Urbare 5 in: Publikationen der Gesellschaft für Rheinische Geschichtskunde 20 (Düsseldorf 1983).

Figure 5: Theodor Werner (left) holding a replica of a medieval mowing scythe and Fabian Kadel (right) holding a replica of a medieval pitchfork. (Lorsch, Germany 2025)

About the Authors: Theodor Werner B.A. History/Auxiliary Sciences of History (Ruprecht Karl University of Heideberg) currently doing an internship at the Experimental Archeology Laboratory Lauresham.

Fabian Kadel student of History/Auxiliary Sciences of History at the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg currently doing an internship at the Experimental Archeology Laboratory Lauresham.